Many kinds of performer
The word “minstrel” is used loosely today, but in the Middle Ages it described a range of entertainers. The word derives from a term for a household servant, and over time came to mean someone hired to perform. Related words include jongleur, in French, and gleeman, in Old English. Some performers were primarily musicians, others were singers, storytellers, acrobats or all of these at once. They were professionals, meaning that performing was how they earned a living, which separated them from amateur singers and from the clergy.
Settled and wandering performers
Historians often distinguish between performers who were attached to a household or town and those who traveled.
Household minstrels. Kings, great nobles and bishops kept minstrels as part of their retinues. Such a performer received wages or livery (regular clothing), meals and sometimes a place to live. Household accounts show that a royal minstrel might be sent on missions, rewarded with gifts or granted land. Being attached to a household brought security, and also an obligation to be available when the lord wished.
Town musicians. In many towns, officials hired a small group of musicians, called waits in England. Their duties could include playing instruments at dawn and dusk, sounding signals and accompanying civic events. A wait might wear a badge or a livery chain showing the town’s service. They played shawms and other loud instruments, well suited to the open air. In time, some towns granted them the exclusive right to play at local weddings and festivals, which protected their income and annoyed outsiders.
Traveling players. Some entertainers moved from place to place, following fairs, feast days and the courts of lords who might pay well. They might perform for a night’s lodging and a few coins, or for substantial gifts if the occasion was important. Travel was risky and unpredictable, and the working life of a wanderer could be hard.
Where and for whom
The settings varied widely.
- Castle and manor halls, where performers played during meals and in the evening.
- Town squares and streets, where a performer could draw a crowd and collect coins in a cap or bowl.
- Fairs and markets, which gathered large numbers of people and attracted entertainers.
- Taverns and inns, where music and storytelling helped keep customers happy.
- Weddings and private celebrations, for which families hired musicians according to their means.
- Church-related festivals, such as processions, where civic or guild musicians might play, though church authorities were not always comfortable with this.
The audience determined the show. A noble hall might want songs in praise of heroes and ladies, while a village crowd might prefer dance tunes, comic tales and tricks. Skilled performers adjusted their repertory to the people in front of them, and many performers could play several roles.
A hall performance
At a feast, the minstrels might first play to announce the guests and the courses, then perform during the meal, and later provide dance music. A singer might recite a long story, such as a tale of an old hero, with or without an instrument. This kind of performance relied on voice, memory and skill with audiences, and a good performer could hold a hall’s attention for a long time. Heralds also had a performing role in some settings, with proclamations and announcements at tournaments, and some entertainers worked alongside them.
Status and reputation
The social standing of performers was mixed. Skilled household minstrels could be well rewarded and valued, and a few became wealthy or influential. Others lived on the margins. The Church was often suspicious of entertainers, and some medieval writers condemned them as idle, immoral or dishonest. Canon law and preachers’ complaints sometimes restricted the sacraments or certain privileges for performers, though attitudes varied. Theologians also debated whether entertaining was a sinful occupation or a useful service that gave rest and pleasure. In practice, the strongest condemnations were aimed at the worst offenders, and many performers received respect and support from patrons.
Some performers organized to protect their interests. In several cities, groups of minstrels formed fraternities or guilds, similar to craft guilds, setting standards, regulating who could perform and helping members in need. In Paris, a minstrels’ guild is known from the 14th century, though details of its early history are less certain. These associations show that performance could be treated as a trade.
Pay and patronage
Performers were paid in a mix of coin, clothing, food, gifts and favors. Payment was usually left to the patron’s generosity, and a well-judged song might be rewarded handsomely. Gifts of cloth or a cloak were common, and performers’ costumes were sometimes provided by the household. A good reputation could help a minstrel obtain a better position, and some moved among courts in search of higher pay. Others depended on small coins from ordinary audiences.
What the sources leave out
Most of what we know about performers comes from payment records, legal disputes and the comments of writers who were not performers themselves. We have few accounts in the words of the minstrels, and little about their daily routines. That means the picture is partly shaped by what clerks and critics chose to note. Even so, the main outline is clear: performers were a regular and visible part of medieval life, working in many settings and for many kinds of audience.