Entertainment as a display
At a medieval court, entertainment was never only entertainment. A lord who could afford musicians, dancers and spectacle was showing that he had wealth to spare, followers to impress and the refinement expected of his rank. Guests judged a host partly by the quality of the evening, and a king or duke who wished to be seen as magnificent made sure the hall was full of music. This is the central idea behind courtly entertainment: it was a public performance of status as much as a private pleasure.
The carole and early court dance
In the 12th and 13th centuries, one of the most common dances in aristocratic circles was the carole. Dancers joined hands in a ring or a chain, moving in a simple step pattern while a singer, sometimes one of the dancers, led a song and the others joined a refrain. Images in manuscripts show richly dressed men and women dancing this way, often in gardens, which is a favorite setting in art and poetry. The carole could be danced by people who had no special training, so it suited large mixed gatherings.
Because the carole was sung, it did not require a hired band, though instruments could join. Its simplicity is one reason that it appeared across social levels, and the same basic form is found in village celebrations as well as noble ones. What distinguished a court carole was the setting, the clothes and the songs, which might be those of poets patronized by the household.
More structured dances
By the later Middle Ages, written and pictorial sources point to more formal dance at the courts of France, Burgundy and Italy. One well-known type was the basse danse, a slow and stately dance of the 15th century, in which dancers glided with small, smooth steps rather than leaping. Manuscripts from the Burgundian court preserve notation for its steps and music, giving us unusually good evidence. Lively dances such as the saltarello offered a contrast, and a court evening might include both slow and fast types.
Dance masters began to teach and write about steps in the 15th century, which suggests that a good courtier was expected to dance with grace. At this stage, dance was linked with manners, posture and the art of moving in company. How much of this applies to earlier centuries is unclear, and it is safer not to project later refinement back onto the 12th century.
Minstrels hired for feasts
Large households kept minstrels on staff, and others were hired for particular events. Accounts from royal and noble courts record payments to musicians, along with gifts of clothing and food. When a major occasion approached, such as a wedding, a knighting or a holiday feast, a lord might bring in extra performers or invite those from other courts. A famous occasion in England was the great feast at Westminster at Pentecost in 1306, when Edward I knighted his son, and the records mention a large number of minstrels receiving payments. Even without precise numbers, the size of such gatherings shows the scale involved.
At feasts, music and dance were part of a sequence. Trumpets or shawms might announce the arrival of a dish or an important guest, softer instruments might accompany conversation, and after the meal the dancing began. Between courses, entertainers of many kinds could perform, including singers, acrobats and jesters. The mix of entertainers contributed to the show. Large noble feasts had a theatrical element, with elaborate food presentations sometimes accompanied by costumed performers.
Status in the details
Details of entertainment communicated rank. The number of musicians, the quality of their instruments, the livery they wore and the generosity of payments all told visitors something about the host. Foreign players, rare instruments or a famous singer were signs of reach and connections. Rulers also exchanged musicians as gifts and sometimes hired them away from each other, and good players moved between courts to find better patrons.
Seating and order also mattered. Dancing in a stately dance meant being seen, and the sequence in which people took the floor could reflect precedence. This is why dress and status were so closely linked, since the finest clothes were worn for dancing and display.
A shared evening
Not all entertainment was formal. Noble households also made music informally, with members of the family and household singing, playing games and telling stories in the evening. Many noblemen and women learned to sing or play an instrument, and a lord might take pride in composing a song. This domestic side is less documented but probably more common than the great feasts that fill the records.
Limits of the evidence
Most of our sources for court entertainment come from the wealthiest households, and they tell us about rulers more than about their lesser neighbors. Descriptions in chronicles may exaggerate to flatter the host. Still, the overall pattern is clear: courts used music and dance to entertain, to build ties among guests and to show off power. The smaller and more private versions of this kind of evening are harder to see, but the impulse behind them was the same.