Drink as part of the daily diet
For much of medieval Europe, ale and wine were everyday drinks, not just luxuries. Ale was effectively a liquid form of grain, providing calories as well as refreshment, and it was drunk by adults and often by children in weaker forms. Wine was common in the south and available to those who could afford it elsewhere.
A popular idea says that medieval people avoided water because it was always unsafe. That is an oversimplification. People did drink water, especially from wells and springs, though towns with crowded streets and waste could have poor supplies, and fermented drinks were often preferred for taste and habit. Ale and wine were part of ordinary meals, not a substitute for every sip of water.
How ale was made
Medieval ale was brewed from malted grain, most often barley, though oats and wheat were also used. The grain was soaked and allowed to sprout, then dried, which is malting. The malt was crushed and steeped in hot water to produce a sweet liquid, called wort. Yeast, or a fermenting residue from an earlier batch, was added, and the mixture fermented for a few days.
Traditional ale was unhopped. Instead, brewers might add herbs or spice mixtures, sometimes called gruit in parts of northern Europe. Without hops, ale spoiled quickly, often within days, so it was brewed in small batches and sold or drunk soon after. Strength varied. Weaker “small” ale was a staple drink, while stronger batches cost more.
Hops and the arrival of beer
Hops began to be used in brewing in parts of continental Europe during the Middle Ages, and the practice grew in the later centuries, especially in the Low Countries and northern Germany. Hopped drinks kept longer and could be shipped more easily. Many historians use “ale” for the unhopped drink and “beer” for the hopped one, though the words were not always used consistently.
The Hanseatic League is often mentioned in connection with exports of beer from northern German towns. In England, hopped beer became established gradually, largely in the 15th century, and it was at first associated with foreigners. Exact dates and the pace of change are debated.
Who brewed
Much brewing was domestic and local. In villages and towns, women commonly brewed ale, often alongside other work, and sold surplus at the door. A bush or pole outside a house traditionally signaled that fresh ale was available. Over time, and especially after the later 14th century in some regions, brewing became more commercial and more often male-dominated, though this shift was gradual and varied.
Monasteries and large households brewed on a bigger scale, partly for their own communities and guests; monastic hospitality created a steady need for drink. In towns, the food trades included commercial brewers, and local authorities cared about quality and price.
Rules and regulation
Authorities in many places regulated brewing and selling. In England, a system often called the assize of bread and ale set rules around prices and measures, and local officials, called ale-tasters or conners, checked quality. Fines for selling bad ale or using false measures appear in surviving court records. These rules reflected how essential the product was, and how easily cheating could harm the poor.
Wine
Wine was produced wherever vines grew well, including much of France, Italy, Spain and the Rhine and Danube valleys. Monasteries and bishops owned many vineyards, partly because wine was needed for the Mass. Lords and towns also controlled vineyards.
Wine was also traded over long distances. Wine from Gascony in southwest France was exported in large quantities to England in the later Middle Ages, and Mediterranean sweet wines were prized. Barrels were shipped by sea and river, and the trade supplied taverns and noble cellars. Medieval wine was usually less stable than modern wine, often sour or hazy, and people sometimes added water, honey or spices. In the Islamic world and in Muslim Spain, religious rules discouraged alcohol, which affected local drinking customs, though practice varied.
Other drinks
In regions where grapes or grain were less suitable, other fermented drinks filled the gap. Mead, made from honey, was valued but costly. Cider and perry, made from apples and pears, were common in parts of western France and England. Milk, buttermilk and whey were drunk in rural areas, usually not as a main beverage. Spiced wines such as hippocras were served at the end of elite meals.
Daily role and social meaning
Drink was bound up with wages, hospitality and sociability. Workers might receive an allowance of ale as part of their pay. Alehouses and taverns were centers of gossip and business, and also sources of worry for moralists who linked drinking with disorder. Church ales, which raised funds for the parish, show how drinking was also a community activity. Drunkenness was condemned, but moderate drinking was normal.
The quality and quantity of drink often reflected status. Small ale for servants, stronger ale for the household, and imported wine for the high table was a common pattern in large houses.