A court that lost its military
Medieval Japan is usually dated from the late 12th century, when power shifted from an aristocratic court to warrior leaders. Before that came the Heian period (794 to 1185), centered on the imperial capital at Heian-kyo, now Kyoto. The court was cultured and literary, producing works such as The Tale of Genji, but it relied on provincial families to keep order. Those families built up armed followers, held land and fought local disputes. Over time they became a distinct class, which we now call the samurai.
Who were the samurai?
The word samurai is linked to a verb meaning “to serve.” Early samurai were mounted archers who fought with a bow from horseback. The sword, which now stands as their emblem, became more prominent as warfare changed, especially in later centuries. They were not simply soldiers, though. Many were landholders who managed estates, collected income and acted as local officials.
Loyalty between a warrior and a lord was exchanged for land or protection, an arrangement that invites comparison with lords and vassals in Europe. The comparison is useful but imperfect. Japanese warrior society had its own legal practices and family structures, and the later idea of a unified “way of the warrior,” often called bushido, was largely written down in later, more peaceful centuries rather than being a medieval code. Likewise, Europe’s mounted knights had Church-related ideals that have no direct counterpart.
Genpei War and the first shogunate
Two great warrior families, the Taira and the Minamoto, struggled for dominance in the Genpei War (1180 to 1185). The Minamoto won. Their leader, Minamoto no Yoritomo, did not take the throne or move into the imperial palace. Instead he set up his headquarters at Kamakura in eastern Japan and had the court grant him the title of shogun, traditionally dated 1192. The title means roughly “general.”
This system is called the bakufu, or “tent government.” The emperor and court continued to exist in Kyoto and kept ceremonial and religious roles, but real military and legal authority lay with the shogun and his vassals. Yoritomo appointed deputies to oversee provinces and collect taxes. That arrangement shaped Japanese politics for roughly the next seven centuries, though who held real power changed a great deal.
The Hojo regents and the Mongols
After Yoritomo’s death, his in-laws, the Hojo family, took over as regents, ruling in the name of the shoguns, who became figureheads. The Kamakura shogunate issued a legal code in 1232, the Joei Code, which set out simple rules for warriors and was admired for being practical.
The shogunate’s greatest test came from the Mongols. After conquering Korea and much of China, Kublai Khan sent invasion fleets against Japan in 1274 and 1281. In both cases the invaders were beaten back, with Japanese defenders and bad weather both playing a part. Later tradition credited typhoons, called kamikaze or “divine winds,” though historians point out that determined defense also counted. The Mongol conquests that had overrun so much of Asia stopped at the sea.
Victory brought no loot to hand out to the warriors who had fought, since there was no conquered land to distribute. Many were left in debt, and discontent weakened the Hojo.
Ashikaga shoguns and Kyoto
In 1333, supporters of the emperor Go-Daigo and the warrior Ashikaga Takauji overthrew the Kamakura regime. Go-Daigo’s attempt to restore direct imperial rule was brief. Takauji turned against him, installed another emperor, and became shogun in 1338 (the start of the Muromachi or Ashikaga period is often given as 1336). For a time two rival imperial courts existed.
Unlike the Kamakura leaders, the Ashikaga shoguns lived in Kyoto, close to the court. The period saw notable cultural achievements, including Zen Buddhist temples, ink painting, tea gatherings, and Noh theater. Trade with China and Korea grew, and Japanese pirates, known as wako, raided coasts at times.
Decline into civil war
Ashikaga power depended on regional lords called daimyo, who held a good deal of independence. The Onin War, beginning in 1467, was a succession dispute among powerful families that burned much of Kyoto and left the shogunate weak. What followed, often called the Sengoku or “warring states” period, was a century of constant conflict among local daimyo. Castles were built, and armies grew bigger. Firearms arrived with Portuguese traders in the 1540s, which is generally treated as past the usual medieval boundary. Later in the 16th century, a series of leaders reunified the country.
Points worth remembering
- The emperor was never replaced, only sidelined.
- Samurai were a class of landholding warriors, not a single military organization.
- The popular image of the disciplined, philosophical samurai owes a lot to later centuries.
- Dates for the start of the shogunate vary by source (1185, 1192), because the system developed in stages.